This abstract was presented at the Academy Health 20th Annual Research Meeting on June 28, 2003, in Nashville, Tennessee.

Measures based on routinely collected data would be useful to examine the epidemiology of patient safety. Extending previous work, we established the face and consensual validity of twenty Patient Safety Indicators (PSIs). We generated a national profile of patient safety by applying these PSIs to the HCUP Nationwide Inpatient Sample. The incidence of most nonobstetric PSIs increased with age and was higher among African Americans than among whites. The adjusted incidence of most PSIs was highest at urban teaching hospitals. The PSIs may be used in AHRQ's National Quality Report, while providers may use them to screen for preventable complications, target opportunities for improvement, and benchmark performance.

Background: Patient-controlled analgesia (PCA) pumps are widely used after surgery, but their association with various outcomes is not completely understood. Is PCA pump use related to the incidence of postoperative surgical site infections among patients undergoing open intestinal surgery?

Materials and Methods: We undertook a comprehensive retrospective chart review of 515 randomly selected patients over age 18 who had major rectal or intestinal surgery (Diagnosis Related Groups [DRGs] 146-149) between January 1994 and March 1997 from eight community or teaching hospitals along the U.S. west coast. Of these patients, 214 used PCA pumps. Outcome measures were in-hospital postoperative surgical site infections, respiratory complications, ileus/abdominal distention, urinary tract infection/urinary retention, and length of stay.

Results: Use of a PCA pump was significantly associated with increased in-hospital postoperative surgical site infections (10.7% for PCA, 4.0% for no PCA). The odds ratio for PCA use was about 4.0 after controlling for many variables, including severity of illness at admission, body mass index, preadmission use of corticosteroids, perforated viscus, number of previous abdominal operations, wound classification category, hypothermia, malnutrition on admission, preoperative antibiotic use within 2 h before incision, time from hospital admission to surgery, skin prep to incision time, anesthesia start to incision time, surgical skin to skin time, wound closure type, time from incision closure to the start of PCA, use of drains, blood product use, central line use, line infection, mobility assistance required, hospital, DRG, and surgeon.

Conclusion: No confounding variables explained the significant association between PCA pump use and in-hospital surgical site infection. These results stand firmly on data that merit additional study to further elucidate possible immunologic effects of PCA pumps.

BACKGROUND: Patients with end-stage renal disease are known to have decreased survival after myocardial infarction, but the association of less severe renal dysfunction with survival after myocardial infarction is unknown.

OBJECTIVES: To determine how patients with renal insufficiency are treated during hospitalization for myocardial infarction and to determine the association of renal insufficiency with survival after myocardial infarction.

DESIGN: Cohort study.

SETTING: All nongovernment hospitals in the United States.

PATIENTS: 130 099 elderly patients with myocardial infarction hospitalized between April 1994 and July 1995.

MEASUREMENTS: Patients were categorized according to initial serum creatinine level: no renal insufficiency (creatinine level < 1.5 mg/dL [<132 micromol/L]; n = 82 455), mild renal insufficiency (creatinine level, 1.5 to 2.4 mg/dL [132 to 212 micromol/L]; n = 36 756), or moderate renal insufficiency (creatinine level, 2.5 to 3.9 mg/dL [221 to 345 micromol/L]; n = 10 888). Vital status up to 1 year after discharge was obtained from Social Security records.

RESULTS: Compared with patients with no renal insufficiency, patients with moderate renal insufficiency were less likely to receive aspirin, beta-blockers, thrombolytic therapy, angiography, and angioplasty during hospitalization. One-year mortality was 24% in patients with no renal insufficiency, 46% in patients with mild renal insufficiency, and 66% in patients with moderate renal insufficiency (P < 0.001). After adjustment for patient and treatment characteristics, mild (hazard ratio, 1.68 [95% CI, 1.63 to 1.73]) and moderate (hazard ratio, 2.35 [CI, 2.26 to 2.45]) renal insufficiency were associated with substantially elevated risk for death during the first month of follow-up. This increased mortality risk continued until 6 months after myocardial infarction.

CONCLUSIONS: Renal insufficiency was an independent risk factor for death in elderly patients after myocardial infarction. Targeted interventions may be needed to improve treatment for this high-risk population.

An extensive literature documents a high prevalence of errors in clinical diagnosis discovered at autopsy. Multiple studies have suggested no significant decrease in these errors over time. Despite these findings, autopsies have dramatically decreased in frequency in the United States and many other countries.

In 1994, the last year for which national U.S. data exist, the autopsy rate for all non-forensic deaths fell below 6 percent. The marked decline in autopsy rates from previous rates of 40-50 percent undoubtedly reflects various factors, including reimbursement issues, the attitudes of clinicians regarding the utility of autopsies in the setting of other diagnostic advances, and general unfamiliarity with the autopsy and techniques for requesting it, especially among physicians-in-training.

The autopsy is valuable for its role in undergraduate and graduate medical education, the identification and characterization of new diseases, and contributions to the understanding of disease pathogenesis. Although extensive, these benefits are difficult to quantify. This systematic review studied the more easily quantifiable benefits of the autopsy as a tool in performance measurement and improvement. Such benefits largely relate to the role of the autopsy in detecting errors in clinical diagnosis and unsuspected complications of treatment.

It is hoped that characterizing the extent to which the autopsy provides data relevant to clinical performance measurement and improvement will help inform strategies for preserving the benefits of routinely obtained autopsies and for considering its wider use as an instrument for quality improvement.

This report does not attempt to address the roles of the autopsy in medical education; furthering medical research; quality control within pathology; verification, second-opinion consultations, and legal documentation of findings; the bereavement process for surviving family members; or other benefits that are described in many of the sources listed in the bibliography (Appendix F). In addition to being difficult to quantify, these benefits apply primarily to teaching hospitals. To address the role of the autopsy as an outcome measure and tool for quality improvement, the report focuses on benefits likely to apply to all hospitals, such as the detection of important diagnostic errors and related quality problems.

Evidence from the United States suggests that technological change is a key factor in understanding both medical expenditure growth and recent dramatic improvements in the health of people with serious illnesses. Yet little international research has examined how the causes and consequences of technological change in health care differ worldwide. Seeking to illuminate these issues, this volume documents how use of high-technology treatments for heart attack changed in fifteen developed countries over the 1980s and 1990s. Drawn from the collaborative effort of seventeen research teams in fifteen countries, it provides a cross-country analysis of microdata that illuminates the relationships between public policies toward health care, technology, costs, and health outcomes.

The comparisons presented here confirm that the use of medical technology in treatment for heart attack is strongly related to incentives, and that technological change is an important cause of medical expenditure growth in all developed countries. Each participating research team reviewed the economic and regulatory incentives provided by their country's health system, and major changes in those incentives over the 1980s and 1990s, according to a commonly used framework. Such incentives include: the magnitude of out-of-pocket costs to patients, the generosity of reimbursement to physicians and hospitals, regulation of the use of new technologies or the supply of physicians, regulation of competition, and the structure of hospital ownership. Each team also reviewed how care for heart attacks has changed in their country over the past decade.

The book will be of enormous importance to health economists, medical researchers and epidemiologists, and policymakers.

Survival of patients who sustain a ventricular arrhythmia is poor but slowly improving due to in-hospital use of medications and ICDs. However, this more intensive hospital treatment has been accompanied by increased hospital expenditures, finds this study. The researchers analyzed Medicare databases from 1985 to 1995 to identify elderly patients hospitalized with ventricular arrhythmias (index admission). They created a longitudinal patient profile by linking the index hospital admission with all earlier and subsequent admissions and with death records.

During this time, about 85,000 elderly patients went to U.S. emergency departments (EDs) with ventricular arrhythmias each year. Only about 20,000 of these patients lived to be admitted to the hospital from the ED, and then about 14 percent died within the first day. From 1987 to 1995, the demographic and clinical characteristics of patients and the use of coronary angioplasty and bypass graft surgery for these patients were largely unchanged. However, the use of electrophysiology studies (EPS) grew from 3 to 22 percent and use of ICDs increased from 1 to 13 percent. A growing number of patients survived, particularly in the medium term, with 1-year survival rates increasing from 53 percent in 1987 to 58 percent in 1994, or half a percentage point each year.

At the same time, hospital expenditures rose 8 percent per year, primarily because of the increased use of EPS and ICD procedures. By 1993, Medicare was reimbursing hospitals an average of $15,627 for care for each patient during the year after admission for ventricular tachycardia/fibrillation. During the subsequent year, another $14,739 on average was spent for these patients. The increased intensity of care for these patients led to a rise in the average expenditure per patient of about $1,000 per year (in 1993 dollars) from 1987 to 1995.

The use of coronary angiography and revascularization is lower than expected among black patients. It is uncertain whether use of other cardiac procedures also varies according to race and ethnicity and whether outcomes are affected.

Methods

We analyzed discharge abstracts from all nonfederal hospitals in California of patients hospitalized for a primary diagnosis of ventricular tachycardia or ventricular fibrillation between 1992 and 1994. We compared mortality rates and use of electrophysiologic study (EPS) and implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD) procedures according to the race and ethnicity of the patient.

Results

Among 8713 patients admitted with ventricular tachycardia or ventricular fibrillation, 29% (n  2508) had a subsequent EPS procedure, and 9% (n  818) had an ICD implanted. After controlling for potential confounding factors, we found that black patients were significantly less likely than white patients to undergo EPS (odds ratio 0.72, CI 0.56-0.92) or ICD implantation (odds ratio 0.39, CI 0.25-0.60). Blacks discharged alive from the initial hospital admission had higher mortality rates over the next year than white patients, even after controlling for multiple confounding risk factors (risk ratio 1.18, CI 1.03-1.36). The use of EPS and ICD procedures was also significantly affected by several other factors, most notably by on-site procedure availability but also by age, sex, and insurance status.

Conclusions

In a large population of patients hospitalized for ventricular arrhythmia, blacks had significantly lower rates of utilization for EPS and ICD procedures and higher subsequent mortality rates.

Introduced into clinical use in 1980, the ICD has become smaller and simpler to implant, while providing better methods to detect and treat sustained ventricular tachyarrhythmias (rapid, irregular heart beat). This study found that ICD use expanded more than 10-fold in clinical practice from 1987 to 1995, with improved mortality rates but high medical expenditures and rates of surgical revision. The investigators identified ICD recipients by use of the hospital discharge databases of Medicare beneficiaries for 1987 through 1995 and of California residents for 1991 through 1995. They linked the initial hospital admission for each ICD patient to previous and subsequent admissions and to mortality files to determine the outcomes of ICD use.

During the study period, over 31,000 ICDs were implanted in Medicare patients, most of whom had been hospitalized for heart attack, congestive heart failure, or ventricular tachycardia at that time or during the previous year. Between 1987 and 1995, the number of hospitals performing the procedure increased from roughly 100 to 500, and the volume of ICD implantations per hospital also rose. Patients who died within 30 days of implantation decreased from 6 to 2 percent, and mortality rates within a year of implantation fell from 19 to 11 percent. Mortality rates at 3 years declined as well, but less sharply, from 38 percent in 1987 to 33 percent in 1992.

Subsequent hospitalizations for ICD complications or surgical replacement were very common and within the first year remained about 5 percent. However, the rate of revision/replacement at 3 years declined from 34 percent from 1987 to 1989 to 18 percent for devices implanted from 1990 to 1992, largely as a result of fewer generator replacements due to improvements in device and battery life. Medicare expenditures for these patients within 30 days of ICD implantation have remained close to $40,000 in 1993 dollars, and 3-year expenditures averaged almost $50,000.

OBJECTIVE: In 1976, the Committee on Perinatal Health recommended that hospitals with no neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) or intermediate NICUs transfer high-risk mothers and infants that weigh 2000 g to a regional NICU. This standard was based on expert opinion and has not been validated carefully. This study evaluated the effect of NICU level and patient volume at the hospital of birth on neonatal mortality of infants with a birth weight (BW) of 2000 g.

METHODS: Birth certificates of 16 732 singleton infants who had a BW of 2000 g and were born in nonfederal hospitals in California in 1992 and 1993 were linked to death certificates and to discharge abstracts. The hospitals were classified by the level of NICU: no NICU, no intensive care; intermediate NICU, intermediate intensive care; community NICU, expanded intermediate intensive care; and regional NICU, tertiary intensive care. A logistic regression model that controlled for demographic risks, diagnoses, transfer, average NICU census, and NICU level was estimated using death within the first 28 days or first year of life if continuously hospitalized as the main outcome measure.

RESULTS: Compared with birth in a hospital with a regional NICU, risk-adjusted mortality of infants with BW of 2000 g was higher when birth occurred in hospitals with no NICU (odds ratio [OR]: 2.38; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.81-3.13), an intermediate NICU (OR: 1.92; 95% CI: 1.44-2.54), or a small (average census 15) community NICU (OR: 1.42; 95% CI: 1.14-1.76). Risk-adjusted mortality for infants who were born in hospitals with a large (average census > or =15) community NICU was not statistically different compared with those with a regional NICU (OR: 1.11; 95% CI: 0.87-1.43). Except for large community NICUs, all of these ORs are larger when the data are restricted to infants with BW of 1500 g or BW of 1250 g and smaller for BW between 1250 g and 1999 g and 1500 g and 1999 g. For large community NICUs, the results are similar for the smaller BW intervals and significant only for the larger BW interval.

CONCLUSIONS: These results support the recommendation that hospitals with no NICU or intermediate NICUs transfer high-risk mothers with estimated fetal weight of 2000 g to a regional NICU. For infants with BW of 2000 g, birth at a hospital with a regional NICU is associated with a lower risk-adjusted mortality than birth at a hospital with no NICU, intermediate NICU of any size, or small community NICU. Subsequent neonatal transfer to a regional NICU only marginally decreases the disadvantage of birth at these hospitals. The evidence for the few hospitals with large community NICUs is mixed. Although the data point to higher mortality in large community NICUs, they are not conclusive and additional study is needed on the mortality effects of large community NICUs. Greater efforts should be made to deliver infants with expected BW of 2000 g at hospitals with regional NICUs.